The Antonine Wall - The Romans in Scotland

Bridgeness Slab The Bridgeness Slab was found in 1869 in Bo'ness in Scotland and was a Roman Distance slab that marked a portion of the Antonine Wall. This slab demonstrates the works of Roman propaganda. On the left it depicts native resistance, possibly the Caledonians being crushed by Roman cavalry while also on the right showing the benefits of Roman rule with peace and prosperity. This slab would have would have been used by the Romans in order to show the people of the land the power of the Roman yet also the benefits of being under their rule. The Bridgeness Slab effectively shows the image of power that the Romans want to project. As part of the Antonine Wall, it too was a mark of power, a defensive wall protecting their territory.




Hadrian's Wall today is one of the best known monuments left that signifies Roman control of Britannia. However the Roman's constructed another wall in 142 AD, known as the Antonine Wall.

The Antonine Wall was ordered to construction in 142 AD by Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Not much is known of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius apart from a biography that was written about 200 years after his death. This records that, "He conquered the Britons through his governor, Lolliius Urbicus, and after driving back the barbarians, built a new wall, of turf." (www.antoninewall.org) This was in reference to his building of the Antonine Wall.

The wall was intended as a defensive position against the Caledonians (the term given to the inhabitants of the land north of the Roman province of Britannia.) Although relations with the Caledonians were fairly good, the Antonine Wall was built as a symbol of Roman power over Britannia. The wall spans from Old Kilpatrick to Carriden and unlike the stone built Hadrian's Wall, Antonine Wall was constructed mostly out of layers of turf. 

Not just a wall but a defensive position as well, it included a 12 foot ditch dug in front and accommodated 6,000 to 7,000 men in seventeen forts. 

However the wall was abandoned 8 years after completion when the Roman forces withdrew back to Hadrian's wall in 165 AD. The Romans would leave Britain altogether in AD 411 and the Antonine Wall much forgotten. 

Although in comparison to Hadrian's Wall, Antonine's Wall is much less known, the wall nonetheless is still a strong symbol of the power and might of the Roman Empire and has left a legacy that will never be forgotten in Scotland. 

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Life in Tudor England

The Tudor period began in 1485, with the reign of Henry VII and ended in 1603 with the reign of Elizabeth I. The Tudor period in England saw five monarchs on the throne, Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I, all part of the Tudor dynasty. However it is important to consider alongside the monarchy, the lives of the ordinary people during the Tudor period. To be able to measure how successful the Tudor monarchy was, the domestic policy needs to be looked at closely.

POVERTY
During Tudor times around one third of the population lived in poverty.

The Vagabonds and Beggars Act (1495) 
This was enforced by King Henry VII. The act focused on punishing people who were seen as vagabonds, a term used for those in poverty without steady home or employment, and allowed punishment of beggars. The officers of this time were allowed lawfully to arrest people who fell under either of these categories. The Act stated: 'vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town.' (1) This act was for the most part highly ineffective. It persecuted those in poverty, without taking into account that many of these people could not possibly provide for themselves and had no other choice but to live the life of a 'vagabond'

Poor Law Act (1535) 
This act stated that governors of cities, towns, parishes and the like should keep and care for those who were aged, poor and impotent through the help of voluntary charity to prevent people from begging. By keeping these 'vagabonds' would keep them in continual labour

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1597) 
This was the first complete code of poor relief and established the Overseers of the Poor.The Overseers of the Poor was a position created by the act and involved administering poor relief including money, food and clothing. The Overseers were responsible in estimating the amount of poor relief required so as to set the poor rate as well as distributing the relief. The poor rate was a tax levied on property used to provide for poor relief.

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1601) 
This refined what was set out in the Act for the Relief of the Poor in 1597 and made parishes responsible for supporting their community. The act involved that the impotent poor were to be cared for in a poorhouse, offering relief for those who were unable to work such as the blind. Those who were able to work were sent to work in a House of Industry. Those who were unwilling to work, known as the idle, were sent to a House of Correction or even prison and pauper children became apprentices. This act was a move away from the prior ways of punishing those in poverty.

EDUCATION
Those who went to school were mainly those who were sons of the wealthy who could actually afford the school fees. Girls were not sent to school but were kept at home to be educated and to learn the housework, or in the case of poorer families, sent out to work. The average school day began between 6:00 and 7:00 am and would finish around 5:00 pm. Due to there being very few books pupils read from hornbooks.

There were two main types of schools during the Tudor period, the petty schools and grammar schools. The petty schools were exclusive to those boys of middle class-origin and was most often ran by a local well educated housewife. These schools often taught boys to basics such as learning to read and write as well as lessons in behavior. Grammar schools were for boys aged 7 to 14, whereby after they may have been sent to university. At grammar school the boys were taught many lessons such as grammar, languages, theology, philosophy, literature, geometry and music. During the time of King Henry VIII he authorised the use of the textbook Lily's Latin Grammar, by William Lily, as the sole Latin grammar book to be used in schools.

After the age of 14 many boys went to university. However at the time there were only two universities; Oxford and Cambridge.

HEALTH
During the the Tudor period the life expectancy ranged from 40-50 years.

There was a high lack of sanitation in Tudor England due to the lack of sewers and drains. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, typhus, diphtheria, Scarlet fever and chickenpox were common  and during this period there were five major outbreaks of the Black Death.

For most people during this period, whether rich or poor, their staple diet was bread, even though the qualities varied between the classes. Nonetheless for most people in the Tudor era they lacked a balanced diet and this lack of necessities such as fruit, vegetables and vitamins often led to scurvy.

(1) - http://www.kingsnorton.info/time/poor_law_workhouse_timeline.htm


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The Carolingian Dynasty and Empire (751-887 AD)

The term Carolingian refers to the second dynasty of the Franks, a dynasty which lasted from around 751-887 AD.

The Carolingian dynasty derives from the Austrasian aristocratic family known as the Arnulfings (or the Pippinids), founded by St Arnulf. The Arnulfings were hereditary mayors of the palace of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia (now northern eastern France, Belgium and areas of western and central Germany) under the Merovingian kings. The Merovingian kings had been reduced to mere figureheads by the Arnulfings and were dubbed the rois fainéants, the 'do nothing kings.'

The Arnulfings to the Carolingians

By 687, Pippin II of Herstal, an Arnulfing, had effective rule over the Frankish realm. His illegitimate son, Charles Martel, by 725, established himself as ruler, even though there still maintained the fiction image of the Merovingian sovereignty. However the Arnulfing dynasty did effectively end after Pippin II as he was succeeded by an illegitimate son, Charles Martel. His reign is said by many historians to be the start of the Carolingian dynasty, named after Charles himself. Charles Martel was succeeded by his son, Pippin III who became sole ruler after his brother Carloman's abdication. In 750, Pippin III successfully desposed of the last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, and officially took the title of King after many years of ruling under the image of false Merovingian sovereignty.

Pippin's successor was his son Charles le Magne, but would become known as Charlemagne who would be King of the Franks from 768-814 AD and would give new name to the Carolingian dynasty as the founder of the Carolingian Empire.

Europe During the Reign of Charlemagne 800 AD

Charlemagne began his reign with many military battles to expand his kingdom. Charlemagne was able to impose unity into Western Europe.  He achieved the total conquest of Saxony in 772, whilst also conquering the Lombards in Northern Italy. Frankish power was extended into Gaul (modern day France), Italy and Germany. He invaded northern Spain in 778, while also around that time adding Bohemia to what became known as his empire, the Carolingian Empire. As a thanks to Charlemagne's assistance in Rome, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans in 800. The Carolingian Empire at its peak claimed 1,112,000 km (squared) and a population estimated between 10-20 million. Charlemagne attempted to spread Christianity throughout his empire.

However his empire did not outlive him. On the death of Charlemagne in 814 he was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious. After his death in 840, his three sons, Lothar, Louis and Charles contested who would succeed. In 843, in the Treaty of Verdun they agreed to divide the empire into three kingdoms. Lothar received the Central Frankish Realm, Louis received the Eastern Frankish Realm and Charles the Western Frankish Realm. This partition of the empire reduced the old authority of the Carolingian empire. Eventually by 877, Carolingian power had dissolved.

The Division of the Empire after the Treaty of Verdun

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The Kashmir Conflict

Kashmir is a long standing area of dispute between India and Pakistan. This has been the case since the end of British rule in India, in 1947.

Kashmir had been a state within the region, and although having a predominately Muslim population, was ruled at the time by the Maharaja Hari Singh, who was a Hindu ruler.

However, with the end of British rule, Kashmir and the Maharaja was faced with an important decision. It could either choose to be an independent state, or annexe with India or Pakistan.

Pakistan expected Kashmir to become part of their territory, due to Pakistan being the new Muslim country and Kashmir being predominantly Muslim. However at first, the Maharaja made the decision to remain neutral. This impartiality did not last long. In October 1947, Kashmir was at a large threat from revolutionaries and Pakistani tribesmen sent to infiltrate the capital of Srinagar.

Signing of Instrument of Accession, 1947

With Kashmir vulnerable, the Maharaja turned to India for military assistance. Fleeing to India, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947, relinquishing Kashmir territory to India.

This conflict of territory would lead to the Indo-Pakistan War of 1947, 1965 and 1971. The Kargil War also occurred in 1999, which led to the intervention of the US to pressure Pakistan to retreat. Through this time it has led to the current situation, with India occupying two-thirds of the territory, Pakistan having northern areas and China occupying eastern regions after making claims in the 1950s. 

The significance for today:

Areas of Occupation in Kashmir

Conflict continues to persist in Kashmir today, and is often seen as the forgotten conflict to the Western world. 

It has affected the current global situation enormously. Osama bin Laden stated in his 2002 letter to the US that one of the reasons he was fighting America was due to its decision to support India in the Kashmir issue. The situation in Kashmir is also becoming more drastic due to the nuclear threat that persists, with both Pakistan and India gaining nuclear powers. As well as this, Amnesty International have brought to light the huge violation of human rights in Kashmir today. There are countless cases of human rights violation from India, including detentions, curfews, rape and torture, which India denies. Over the years, too many to count have died due to this conflict, which continues to persist today. Only today, have 16 people been killed due to violent clashes, in the village of Mahashay Kothe.  (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-29532066)

Even though this is one of the many conflicts that exists in our global society, it is a conflict that has seen horrors for nearly 70 years. This disputed territory, that began with the Maharaja Hari Singh has led to numerous wars and devastated the lives of Kashmiri people. With 43% of Kashmiri people seeking complete independence and 50% of Azad Kashmiri's wishing to join Pakistan, the end of this conflict, unfortunately, sees no end in sight. 

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The Bangladeshi Liberation War (1971)

By 1972, three individual countries, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan, would emerge from what had been, in 1946, one country, India.

After Britain left India in 1947, India was divided into two individual countries, Pakistan and India. It was agreed, due to religious tension, that Pakistan would to be the home of the Muslims and India was for the Hindus. However the areas which were known as Pakistan were divided, each separated, being on the east and west of India. Pakistan was therefore divided into areas known as West and East Pakistan.
However it would soon become clear that although both East and West Pakistan were of the same country, there was a significant difference between them.

It was clear that the political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, whereas East Pakistan was exploited economically and politically ignored. For example between 1950-55, 11,290 of Pakistani rupees was spent in West Pakistan whereas only 5,240 Pakistani rupees were spent by the government in East Pakistan. West Pakistan continuously began to receive more money, even though East Pakistan had a much larger population  All power remained with West Pakistan, and any idea of political power in East Pakistan was ignored. As the differences and exploitation became realised by those in East Pakistan, discontent began to rise, and the East Pakistanis began to fight back against the unfair ruling.

Although resistance in East Pakistan, or Bangladesh as it began to recognise itself as, was scattered at first, it quickly began to organise itself as the Pakistani suppression increased. East Pakistan demanded their separation from West Pakistan, but this was denied. The Bangladeshi Resistance, the Mukti Bahini (which many of my own family members had been a part of), grew in numbers as the Pakistani suppression, Operation Searchlight began.

Operation Searchlight enforced much violence in Bangladesh, causing the Mukti Bahini to fight back, and the beginning of the Liberation War on 26 March 1971. Operation Searchlight was violent, and began systematic killings and acts of genocide, with 3,000,000 casualties for Bangladesh as a whole. The Operation's aim was to attempt to curb Bangladeshi nationalism and destroy all opponents. Universities in Bangladesh were also targeted, with the residential halls of Dhaka University being destroyed. The Hindu residential hall was also unfortunately targeted and massacred, with up to 700 students murdered by Pakistani forces. It is  now recognised that the acts taken by the Pakistani forces in Bangladesh during the Liberation War were acts of genocide.

The Surrender of Pakistani Troops

Pakistan grew wary of the idea of India's involvement and so launched pre-emptive strikes on northern India. However, this caused India to enter the war on 3 December 1971. With India now involved in the war, and Pakistan fighting two fronts, it became increasingly difficult on their part. Eventually on 16 December 1971, Pakistan surrendered to India and Bangladesh. It was the largest surrender since World War II, with Pakistan surrendering 93,000 of its troops to the Liberation forces. These troops were taken as prisoners of war by the Indian Forces.  The surrender of Pakistan was enabled by the signing of the Instrument of Surrender.

The Signing of the Instrument of Surrender

Later on, the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan in 1972. This ensured the recognition of Bangladeshi independence by Pakistan in return for their prisoners of war. Bangladesh sought recognition by the UN, and was admitted. The USA  and China were one of the last countries to recognise Bangladeshi independence, having been a Pakistani ally during the Liberation War.



Having recently visited Bangladesh, although with many of the older generation Pakistani-Bangladeshi tensions still exist, I feel Bangladesh has moved forward greatly. The success of the Liberation War is for many Bengali's today the foundation of their country's pride.

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The Black Death in England (1348-1350)

The Black Death was one of the most severe pandemics in the history of England and the world. In England, it would go on to wipe out nearly half of its population between 1348 and 1349. It would also go on to reach England's shores another six times after this.

The Black Plague reached England in 1348. It would start with a severe headache and a fever. Then may come vomiting, back pain and a soreness in the limbs. Soon burning lumps would appear that would turn black, and ooze blood and pus. In most cases, death would soon follow, within around three days.

It has been thought previously that the disease was caused by rats that carried fleas that could infect a person with this plague. However, very recent evidence that has been acquired from human remains found in north London suggest that fleas were not responsible. Scientists have gathered that the plague spread quickly, far too quickly for the cause to be fleas carried by rats. Instead it is now widely believed amongst academics that the bubonic plague was spread by 'droplet infection' also known as coughing and sneezing.

How did the Black Death reach England?

The Spread of Black Death

It is believed that the bubonic plague originated from China and other areas of Asia. The first appearance in Europe was in Sicily in the autumn of 1347. The plague travelled mostly by the trade routes, passing from traders that had contracted the plague. This assured the quick spread of the plague.

How did the English respond to the Black Death?

In this time period, there was an incredible lack of medical knowledge. This meant that the people would try anything to escape contracting the disease. Some of the most extreme and ludicrous was for example, witchcraft. Many believed that you should place a live hen next to the swelling to draw out the disease from the body. Then, for recovery, drink two glasses of your own urine twice a day. Others, the flagellants, believed that they should show their love for God, so in order to escape the disease. They would show their love by whipping themselves, in the hope that they would be spared. 

Flagellants

The Consequences of the Black Plague

The most immediate consequence of the Black Plague was that due to the high mortality rates, there was a shortage of labour. Those who survived the Black Death believed that they were special and so proceeded to attempt to improve their life after the Black Death had died out. Many peasants demanded higher wages or attempted to leave their villages, even though Feudal law stated peasants could only leave their village with their lord's permission. However many lord's would allow this, so the peasants could go and work for them. The peasants, aware of the shortage of labour, used this to increase their wages. 

The government introduced The Statute of Labourers in 1351 in an attempt to control this constant peasant movement within the countryside. This Statute said that no labourer was to be paid above the wage that they received in 1346, before the plague. Also, no peasant was allowed to permanently leave the village they belonged to. 

These repressive measures enforced by the government led to a build up of anger. This would eventually contribute to the Peasants Revolt in 1381. This Revolt would end up with the burning down of Savoy Palace and the killing of both the Chancellor and the Treasurer. The abolition of serfdom was demanded by the peasants, which was eventually granted. 

The Black Death would appear once again in England. It was last seen in England in what is known as the Great Plague of London, 1665-66. 

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Women in the Early Soviet Union

In Russia's past many peasants had claimed the right to beat their wives, with one proverb saying "The more you beat the old women, the tastier the soup will be." However, when the Soviet Union formed in Russia after the failure of its Provisional government, the new Communist state was to make changes to the position of women in its society.

Alexandra Kollontai, a Marxist who was a committed Bolshevist dominated what was known as 'the woman question.' One of her beliefs was that women should be independent and work outside of the home should be a large part of a woman's life. According to Kollontai, capitalism at the time oppressed women with the burden of both housework and work outside of the home. Lenin agreed with Kollontai and saw the traditional bourgeois marriage as a form of slavery. 

The People's Commissar for Social Welfare passed laws which would create a change in the position of women in society, lessening their importance as merely homemakers but also those who are able to work. For women who were pregnant there became guaranteed paid maternity leave for two months before and after the birth. Mothers with young babies were also allowed shorter hours and allowed time to specifically look after their babies. A commission was also set up to protect mothers and infants that made plans for maternity clinics, milk points and nurseries. These changes showed that the Communist state was attempting to make it easier for women to work rather than be merely homemakers. 

Working Women in the Soviet Union

Also to create a change in women's role in the home, change needed to be made to the bourgeois constraints of marriage. A new divorce law was passed that stated that either the husband or the wife could terminate a marriage on their own grounds. This made divorce much easier that it had been previously and the hope was that this would provide women with more freedom in their lives. However this Communist dream did not work quite as well in reality. By the mid-1920's, the USSR had the highest divorce rate in Europe, approximately 25 times higher than in Britain. It did not work in reality as it left women in a state arguably worse than prior to the changes of divorce laws. Now, women were easily left by their husbands, with many of the women being left pregnant, and many men and women reportedly marrying up to 15 times. In 1927, surveys showed that almost two-thirds of marriage at the time ended in divorce. 

As well as changes to divorce laws in the effort of changing women's status, there was also changes to abortion laws. A law was passed that allowed abortion to be performed under medical supervision and the USSR was in fact the first country to legalise abortion on demand. This is a huge change to the previous Tsarist Russia's image of 'backwardness.' This law was passed in the hope that women would be able to focus more on working rather than the traditional role of women. By the early 1930's there was around 1.5 million abortions per year. In 1931 abortions massively exceeded births with there being 21.3 births per thousand of the population and 36.3 abortions per thousand of the population. 

However in the 1930's the Soviet Union may have realised that although for many good, their ideas for women were possibly at the time, far reaching. The 1930's saw a retreat to the old Russian family values. The Soviet state had realised that their previous policies had radical impacts that could not be dealt with at the time. Changes were made that only allowed abortion if there was a threat to a woman's life and divorce was made harder, with the fee for divorce being raised to 50 roubles for the first divorce, 150 for the second and 300 roubles for any subsequent divorces. 

Although the policies made by the USSR in favour of women's status are accepted in much of today's Western society it appears that at the time they were policies that were far-reaching. Many women in the Soviet Union saw an improvement in their status, but the USSR was not quite ready for its desired radical change.

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