Life in Tudor England

The Tudor period began in 1485, with the reign of Henry VII and ended in 1603 with the reign of Elizabeth I. The Tudor period in England saw five monarchs on the throne, Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I, all part of the Tudor dynasty. However it is important to consider alongside the monarchy, the lives of the ordinary people during the Tudor period. To be able to measure how successful the Tudor monarchy was, the domestic policy needs to be looked at closely.

POVERTY
During Tudor times around one third of the population lived in poverty.

The Vagabonds and Beggars Act (1495) 
This was enforced by King Henry VII. The act focused on punishing people who were seen as vagabonds, a term used for those in poverty without steady home or employment, and allowed punishment of beggars. The officers of this time were allowed lawfully to arrest people who fell under either of these categories. The Act stated: 'vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town.' (1) This act was for the most part highly ineffective. It persecuted those in poverty, without taking into account that many of these people could not possibly provide for themselves and had no other choice but to live the life of a 'vagabond'

Poor Law Act (1535) 
This act stated that governors of cities, towns, parishes and the like should keep and care for those who were aged, poor and impotent through the help of voluntary charity to prevent people from begging. By keeping these 'vagabonds' would keep them in continual labour

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1597) 
This was the first complete code of poor relief and established the Overseers of the Poor.The Overseers of the Poor was a position created by the act and involved administering poor relief including money, food and clothing. The Overseers were responsible in estimating the amount of poor relief required so as to set the poor rate as well as distributing the relief. The poor rate was a tax levied on property used to provide for poor relief.

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1601) 
This refined what was set out in the Act for the Relief of the Poor in 1597 and made parishes responsible for supporting their community. The act involved that the impotent poor were to be cared for in a poorhouse, offering relief for those who were unable to work such as the blind. Those who were able to work were sent to work in a House of Industry. Those who were unwilling to work, known as the idle, were sent to a House of Correction or even prison and pauper children became apprentices. This act was a move away from the prior ways of punishing those in poverty.

EDUCATION
Those who went to school were mainly those who were sons of the wealthy who could actually afford the school fees. Girls were not sent to school but were kept at home to be educated and to learn the housework, or in the case of poorer families, sent out to work. The average school day began between 6:00 and 7:00 am and would finish around 5:00 pm. Due to there being very few books pupils read from hornbooks.

There were two main types of schools during the Tudor period, the petty schools and grammar schools. The petty schools were exclusive to those boys of middle class-origin and was most often ran by a local well educated housewife. These schools often taught boys to basics such as learning to read and write as well as lessons in behavior. Grammar schools were for boys aged 7 to 14, whereby after they may have been sent to university. At grammar school the boys were taught many lessons such as grammar, languages, theology, philosophy, literature, geometry and music. During the time of King Henry VIII he authorised the use of the textbook Lily's Latin Grammar, by William Lily, as the sole Latin grammar book to be used in schools.

After the age of 14 many boys went to university. However at the time there were only two universities; Oxford and Cambridge.

HEALTH
During the the Tudor period the life expectancy ranged from 40-50 years.

There was a high lack of sanitation in Tudor England due to the lack of sewers and drains. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, typhus, diphtheria, Scarlet fever and chickenpox were common  and during this period there were five major outbreaks of the Black Death.

For most people during this period, whether rich or poor, their staple diet was bread, even though the qualities varied between the classes. Nonetheless for most people in the Tudor era they lacked a balanced diet and this lack of necessities such as fruit, vegetables and vitamins often led to scurvy.

(1) - http://www.kingsnorton.info/time/poor_law_workhouse_timeline.htm


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The Carolingian Dynasty and Empire (751-887 AD)

The term Carolingian refers to the second dynasty of the Franks, a dynasty which lasted from around 751-887 AD.

The Carolingian dynasty derives from the Austrasian aristocratic family known as the Arnulfings (or the Pippinids), founded by St Arnulf. The Arnulfings were hereditary mayors of the palace of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia (now northern eastern France, Belgium and areas of western and central Germany) under the Merovingian kings. The Merovingian kings had been reduced to mere figureheads by the Arnulfings and were dubbed the rois fainéants, the 'do nothing kings.'

The Arnulfings to the Carolingians

By 687, Pippin II of Herstal, an Arnulfing, had effective rule over the Frankish realm. His illegitimate son, Charles Martel, by 725, established himself as ruler, even though there still maintained the fiction image of the Merovingian sovereignty. However the Arnulfing dynasty did effectively end after Pippin II as he was succeeded by an illegitimate son, Charles Martel. His reign is said by many historians to be the start of the Carolingian dynasty, named after Charles himself. Charles Martel was succeeded by his son, Pippin III who became sole ruler after his brother Carloman's abdication. In 750, Pippin III successfully desposed of the last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, and officially took the title of King after many years of ruling under the image of false Merovingian sovereignty.

Pippin's successor was his son Charles le Magne, but would become known as Charlemagne who would be King of the Franks from 768-814 AD and would give new name to the Carolingian dynasty as the founder of the Carolingian Empire.

Europe During the Reign of Charlemagne 800 AD

Charlemagne began his reign with many military battles to expand his kingdom. Charlemagne was able to impose unity into Western Europe.  He achieved the total conquest of Saxony in 772, whilst also conquering the Lombards in Northern Italy. Frankish power was extended into Gaul (modern day France), Italy and Germany. He invaded northern Spain in 778, while also around that time adding Bohemia to what became known as his empire, the Carolingian Empire. As a thanks to Charlemagne's assistance in Rome, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans in 800. The Carolingian Empire at its peak claimed 1,112,000 km (squared) and a population estimated between 10-20 million. Charlemagne attempted to spread Christianity throughout his empire.

However his empire did not outlive him. On the death of Charlemagne in 814 he was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious. After his death in 840, his three sons, Lothar, Louis and Charles contested who would succeed. In 843, in the Treaty of Verdun they agreed to divide the empire into three kingdoms. Lothar received the Central Frankish Realm, Louis received the Eastern Frankish Realm and Charles the Western Frankish Realm. This partition of the empire reduced the old authority of the Carolingian empire. Eventually by 877, Carolingian power had dissolved.

The Division of the Empire after the Treaty of Verdun

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The Kashmir Conflict

Kashmir is a long standing area of dispute between India and Pakistan. This has been the case since the end of British rule in India, in 1947.

Kashmir had been a state within the region, and although having a predominately Muslim population, was ruled at the time by the Maharaja Hari Singh, who was a Hindu ruler.

However, with the end of British rule, Kashmir and the Maharaja was faced with an important decision. It could either choose to be an independent state, or annexe with India or Pakistan.

Pakistan expected Kashmir to become part of their territory, due to Pakistan being the new Muslim country and Kashmir being predominantly Muslim. However at first, the Maharaja made the decision to remain neutral. This impartiality did not last long. In October 1947, Kashmir was at a large threat from revolutionaries and Pakistani tribesmen sent to infiltrate the capital of Srinagar.

Signing of Instrument of Accession, 1947

With Kashmir vulnerable, the Maharaja turned to India for military assistance. Fleeing to India, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947, relinquishing Kashmir territory to India.

This conflict of territory would lead to the Indo-Pakistan War of 1947, 1965 and 1971. The Kargil War also occurred in 1999, which led to the intervention of the US to pressure Pakistan to retreat. Through this time it has led to the current situation, with India occupying two-thirds of the territory, Pakistan having northern areas and China occupying eastern regions after making claims in the 1950s. 

The significance for today:

Areas of Occupation in Kashmir

Conflict continues to persist in Kashmir today, and is often seen as the forgotten conflict to the Western world. 

It has affected the current global situation enormously. Osama bin Laden stated in his 2002 letter to the US that one of the reasons he was fighting America was due to its decision to support India in the Kashmir issue. The situation in Kashmir is also becoming more drastic due to the nuclear threat that persists, with both Pakistan and India gaining nuclear powers. As well as this, Amnesty International have brought to light the huge violation of human rights in Kashmir today. There are countless cases of human rights violation from India, including detentions, curfews, rape and torture, which India denies. Over the years, too many to count have died due to this conflict, which continues to persist today. Only today, have 16 people been killed due to violent clashes, in the village of Mahashay Kothe.  (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-india-29532066)

Even though this is one of the many conflicts that exists in our global society, it is a conflict that has seen horrors for nearly 70 years. This disputed territory, that began with the Maharaja Hari Singh has led to numerous wars and devastated the lives of Kashmiri people. With 43% of Kashmiri people seeking complete independence and 50% of Azad Kashmiri's wishing to join Pakistan, the end of this conflict, unfortunately, sees no end in sight. 

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