The Srebrenica Genocide (1995)

When we say the word 'genocide' the phrase that usually follows is 'the Holocaust.' A genocide is defined as the "systematic elimination of all or a significant part of a racial, ethnic, religious or national group." And it is perhaps fair to say that the Western World has done well to educate the generations that have followed about the Holocaust. However other acts of genocide should not be forgotten, for instance the Srebrenica Genocide.

The Srebrenica Genocide was the systematic killing of mostly male Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) in July 1995 during the Bosnian Civil War. Estimates suggest that between 7,000 and 8,000 Bosniaks were killed.

After the Second World War a number of Balkan States such as Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia and Slovenia were brought together to be a part of the Republic of Yugoslavia. However soon after there was rising nationalist tension and ethnic conflict. The war was essentially between the Bosnians that wished for independence and those that didn't - Bosnian Serbs - who found support from Serbia. The civil war resulted in the disintegration of Yugoslavia and the independence of Bosnia. It is often the topic of debate as to whether the Bosnian Civil War actually classifies as a civil war, perhaps due to the inclusion and actions taken by Serbia.

The Srebrenica Genocide was only a part of the number of mass killings by Bosnian Serbs during the civil war. Srebrenica is a small city in the mountains of Bosnia.

Although earlier marked as a 'safe city' by the UN in the early stages of the Bosnian Civil War, Bosnian-Serb forces entered Srebrenica in June 1995. The mass killings soon followed. The male Bosniaks (male Muslim Bosnians) were systematically separated from the female women and children and led to their deaths. Hundreds were massacred is school gymnasiums and the worst massacre would occur at a football field near Nova Kasaba.

According to an eyewitness of the massacre the Serbian forces "picked out Muslims" and would just "line them up and shoot them into pits."(1) It was only until 2004 that Serbian officials acknowledged  that their forces had carried out the mass killings and also that the operation, to capture Bosnian Muslim men, was a planned and well thought out operation.

The Srebrenica Genocide and Massacre was one of the most horrendous since the times of the Second World War.

The mass graves of these Muslim male Bosniaks would only be found through a long-hard process and with the help of international assistance, such as US intelligence experts and the use of satellite photography. Bodies and mass graves are still continually found today.

Srebrenica Massacre Memorial Wall

Recently, partial blame of the Srebrenica Genocide has been shifted to the UN, who mistakenly identified Srebrenica as a safe place under their protection. However, although it is vital to bring those responsible to justice, it is of equal importance to remember the lives lost during this genocide and any other genocide that has plagued human history. Britain has recently called for July 11 to be marked as a memorial day for the victims of the Srebrenica Genocide. And as this day fast approaches, we should all try and remember not just the victims of the Srebrenica Massacre, but the victims of all genocides. The victims of the Holocaust, the Cambodian genocide, the Rwandan genocide, and numerous others that fill a long list. The victims of hatred, war and contrasting ideologies.



(1) Quote found in Mark Danner, "The Killing Fields of Bosnia", 1998

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Medieval Medicine - Butchers and Barbers?!

The Medieval period is often understood to be between the 5th and the 15th century, and is seen to have ended when the Age of Discovery and Renaissance began.

Knowledge of medicine during the Medieval period was near to non-existent. The most advanced medical knowledge at the time would have been found in the Muslim Middle East, however in Medieval Europe medical understanding was so limited that disease and death was common. They had no understanding of diseases - the reasons for them or even how to treat them. There was a variety of interpretations for the reason behind diseases. The Black Death, which plagued Medieval Europe, was often understood to have been a way of God punishing the people for their sins. Some also believed disease and ill-health could have been the work of demons, bad smells, or even at times the alignment of the stars.

Medieval doctors analysed and diagnosed people's health based on the Four Humours. These were four bodily fluids (yellow bile, black bile, blood and phlegm) which if some were in excess, were used as indicators for what disease a patient may be suffering with. It was understood that ideally everybody should have a balance of the Four Humours, and perhaps ill-health may be, in part, down to an imbalance of the Humours.

The Four Humours

Understanding of disease was limited mainly due to the fact that they had little actual understanding of the human anatomy. The Church forbade any dissection of the human body and therefore 'surgeons' had nothing to help them understand internal diseases. For instance, in order to cure general illnesses, patients were recommended to partake in a holy pilgrimage of some sort, as a show of love for God would cure any illness.

'Surgeons' tended to be butchers or barbers, who transferred their every day skills to the art of medicine. And (fun fact, perhaps?) the red and white pole that is found outside some barbers is actually derived from the medieval period where barbers would perform surgery. The red stood for blood and the white stood for the bandages the barbers/surgeons would use after their own 'operations.' Many of the Medieval treatments used by these butchers and barbers are seen as barbaric and near torturous in comparison to modern medicine. The treatment for 'evil spirits in the head' was to cut a hole in the skull, and sometimes the brain, to remove the 'evil spirits' that were trapped.

John Arderne

Medieval medicine however was most advanced in the Muslim Middle East. Muslim doctors had successfully managed to conserve the ideas of Greek and Roman medicine. These doctors, such as Ibn an Nafis, also began to develop the work of the Romans and Greek, which meant that Middle Eastern medicine was far ahead than European medicine at the time. In any other situation their ideas would have been quick to travel to Europe, however these ideas were slow to spread due to the war between Christians and Muslims.

However not all of the Medieval period's doctors were completely useless and un-intelligent. One of the most famous physician of the Medieval period remembered today was English surgeon, John Arderne. He wrote a number of medical texts and in fact some of his work is still present in modern day medicine today! Arderne was one of the first to discover that things such as Opium could be used as an external anaesthetic.


Perhaps being aware of the tragic state of medieval Medicine will make us all appreciate the modern medicine. We should all appreciate things such as antibiotics and doctors that aren't butchers and barbers, that we may take for granted in the Western World. 


If you would like to read more about John Arderne, I recommend this: 
https://universityofglasgowlibrary.wordpress.com/2012/09/25/john-of-arderne-the-father-of-english-surgery/

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The Persecution of Muslims in Burma

Burma (also known as Myanmar) is a Buddhist majority country. However it is also home to a small Muslim minority, and as of 2013 there are 1.3 million Rohingya Muslims living in Burma, with most living in the state of Rakhine. (1)

The Rohingya people are said to be mostly people of Bengali ethnic origin that fled the Indian region of Bengal (now Bangladesh.) Mass migration of the Rohingya people is said to have begun when the British gained control of India with Bengals often migrating to Burma in search of jobs.

Anti-Islamic ideologies in Burma can said to be rooted in the fact that many Buddhists had been persecuted in India during the time of the Mughal Empire. However, in the last 50 years especially, the Rohingya Muslim population have been faced with increasing persecution by Burmese Buddhist radicals.

Up until 1962 the Rohingya people were seen as full citizens of Burma. However this all changed when in 1962 the charge of power shifted to the army and military general, General Ne Win. Rohingya people began to be viewed as 'immigrants' or 'intruders' on the basis that they only went to Burma after the British occupation of the Rakhine State. Ne Win introduced and passed a law in 1982 that took away the citizenship of the Rohingya people. Officially stripped of Burmese citizenship they are now seen by Burmese people as 'Bengali immigrants.'

Persecution of Muslims is seen clearly in recent Burmese history. With the rise of Islamic extremism this has been used as a justification for the persecution of Muslims. For example the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan by the Taliban in 2001. The Buddhas of Bamiyan were carvings of a standing buddha, carved into the Bamiyan valley, part of the Bamyan province in Afghanistan.

Destruction of the 'Buddhas of Bamiyan'

This destructive act by the Taliban incited retaliation by radical Buddhists who demanded justice with the destruction of mosques in Burma. This provided impetus for the 2001 Anti-Muslim Riots in Taungoo. On May 15 2001, 20 Muslims who were praying in the Hun Tha mosque were killed and some beaten to death. The Hun Tha mosque was then later bulldozed.

Persecution of Muslims has only continued in Burma with the Rakhine State Riots in 2012. 166  Muslims were killed. In 2013 the hugely Islamophobic 969 Buddhist movement began, led by Bhikkhu Wirathu. Wirathu claims the movement is in order to protect Burmese people from Bengalis who terrorise them, however it is clear that their beliefs are predominantly anti-Islamic with Wirathu preaching against an influx of Muslims into Burma. The 969 movement in fact has provided momentum for further anti-Islamic movements in Burma, provoking the 2013 Anti-Muslim Riots in Central Burma.

Anti-Islamic movements and persecution of Muslims has been increasingly present in Burma. If I were to name the countless incidents against Muslims the list would be painfully long. However it is vital that we see the importance of the increasing persecution of Muslims in Burma. Yes, as the UN and charities such as Amnesty International have acknowledged, the human rights of the Muslim Rohingya population are being violated. Yet there is also an importance on a wider global scale. Increasing Muslim persecution is also dangerous in fuelling extremism or leading Burmese Muslims to resort to radicalism. Already Muslims in Burma have collectively begun to form groups and protect each other, however if the persecution continues it can only lay the foundations for radical Islam.

We see all over the world the dangers of Islamic extremism, Islam that is used in order to, what they see (and falsely so) in 'protecting themselves.' Therefore, although it must be brought to all our attention the persecution and the violation of the human rights of Burma's Muslim population, it must also be stopped for the danger on a wider global scale. Although some may say it's an exaggeration, I believe this persecution can only fuel Islamic extremism in Burma. Maybe the threat of this may provoke world leaders to finally take action with Burma. We can only hope.


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(1)Price, David (October 2014) "Fatal Distraction from Federalism: Religious Conflict in Rakhine" Harvard Ash Centre, Retrieved 20 February 2015

Have We Learned from the Holocaust?

Why is history important? Most of you may answer that it is in order to recognise our mistakes. Most often it would be to learn from history in order to create a better future.

However, do we actually learn from history? Or is the idea of learning from history merely a 'fairytale' ideal?

The Holocaust (the Shoah) was without a doubt one of the most atrocious acts of genocide of humankind to date. It involved the attempted mass murder of Jews and non-Jews (Gypsies, Poles, communists, homosexuals and the disabled) in Nazi Concentration Camps across Germany and German occupied areas.

Eleven million in total died.

The 27th January marks the liberation of the most notorious concentration camps, Auschwitz.

Have we learned from the Holocaust? 

After the Holocaust came to light to the entire world the United Nations declared the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide. This came into effect as a direct result of the Holocaust. Article 2 of the Convention defined genocide as "acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group."

It would appear from this convention declared by the UN that a lesson may have been learnt from the Holocaust. Genocide or even attempting genocide is one of the most despicable crimes that anybody could commit.

One of the most important lessons however (in my own opinion) to take from the Holocaust is that we should protect innocent communities and individuals from persecution. The Holocaust should have taught us that persecution of any community (whether that be religious, ethnic etc.) is inherently wrong.

However innocent groups of people continue to be persecuted all around us.

For example, the Israel-Palestine conflict. Palestinian Muslims and Christians face daily persecution by Israeli Zionists. This persecution is ongoing.

Anti-semitism continues to be a problem today. According to a recent survey many people continue to hold anti-semitic stereotypes, leading 54% of Jews to believe they have no future in Britain. Also in light of the events in Palestine, many Jews face the unnecessary repercussions of those that misunderstand the conflict. This persecution is ongoing.

In Burma, Muslims have continuously faced persecution by many Burmese Buddhists. The 969 Movement is seen as triggering nationwide anti-Islamic beliefs in Burma, for example in 2013 there were the Burma anti-Muslim riots which incited violence against Muslims. Many of Burma's Muslim population have had to flee to neighbouring Bangladesh due to a huge violation of their human rights in Burma. This persecution is ongoing.

Therefore it is clear with these few examples (many more could be added for sure) that we do not appear to have learnt from the Holocaust. The Holocaust should have taught us that persecution for whatever reason, such as religion or ethnicity, is categorically wrong. However many communities around the world continue to face persecution. Albeit not all of them are on the mass scale of genocide, however persecution nonetheless is ongoing in our society. So, have we learned from the Holocaust? No.

The Antonine Wall - The Romans in Scotland

Bridgeness Slab The Bridgeness Slab was found in 1869 in Bo'ness in Scotland and was a Roman Distance slab that marked a portion of the Antonine Wall. This slab demonstrates the works of Roman propaganda. On the left it depicts native resistance, possibly the Caledonians being crushed by Roman cavalry while also on the right showing the benefits of Roman rule with peace and prosperity. This slab would have would have been used by the Romans in order to show the people of the land the power of the Roman yet also the benefits of being under their rule. The Bridgeness Slab effectively shows the image of power that the Romans want to project. As part of the Antonine Wall, it too was a mark of power, a defensive wall protecting their territory.




Hadrian's Wall today is one of the best known monuments left that signifies Roman control of Britannia. However the Roman's constructed another wall in 142 AD, known as the Antonine Wall.

The Antonine Wall was ordered to construction in 142 AD by Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Not much is known of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius apart from a biography that was written about 200 years after his death. This records that, "He conquered the Britons through his governor, Lolliius Urbicus, and after driving back the barbarians, built a new wall, of turf." (www.antoninewall.org) This was in reference to his building of the Antonine Wall.

The wall was intended as a defensive position against the Caledonians (the term given to the inhabitants of the land north of the Roman province of Britannia.) Although relations with the Caledonians were fairly good, the Antonine Wall was built as a symbol of Roman power over Britannia. The wall spans from Old Kilpatrick to Carriden and unlike the stone built Hadrian's Wall, Antonine Wall was constructed mostly out of layers of turf. 

Not just a wall but a defensive position as well, it included a 12 foot ditch dug in front and accommodated 6,000 to 7,000 men in seventeen forts. 

However the wall was abandoned 8 years after completion when the Roman forces withdrew back to Hadrian's wall in 165 AD. The Romans would leave Britain altogether in AD 411 and the Antonine Wall much forgotten. 

Although in comparison to Hadrian's Wall, Antonine's Wall is much less known, the wall nonetheless is still a strong symbol of the power and might of the Roman Empire and has left a legacy that will never be forgotten in Scotland. 

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Life in Tudor England

The Tudor period began in 1485, with the reign of Henry VII and ended in 1603 with the reign of Elizabeth I. The Tudor period in England saw five monarchs on the throne, Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I, all part of the Tudor dynasty. However it is important to consider alongside the monarchy, the lives of the ordinary people during the Tudor period. To be able to measure how successful the Tudor monarchy was, the domestic policy needs to be looked at closely.

POVERTY
During Tudor times around one third of the population lived in poverty.

The Vagabonds and Beggars Act (1495) 
This was enforced by King Henry VII. The act focused on punishing people who were seen as vagabonds, a term used for those in poverty without steady home or employment, and allowed punishment of beggars. The officers of this time were allowed lawfully to arrest people who fell under either of these categories. The Act stated: 'vagabonds, idle and suspected persons shall be set in the stocks for three days and three nights and have none other sustenance but bread and water and then shall be put out of Town.' (1) This act was for the most part highly ineffective. It persecuted those in poverty, without taking into account that many of these people could not possibly provide for themselves and had no other choice but to live the life of a 'vagabond'

Poor Law Act (1535) 
This act stated that governors of cities, towns, parishes and the like should keep and care for those who were aged, poor and impotent through the help of voluntary charity to prevent people from begging. By keeping these 'vagabonds' would keep them in continual labour

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1597) 
This was the first complete code of poor relief and established the Overseers of the Poor.The Overseers of the Poor was a position created by the act and involved administering poor relief including money, food and clothing. The Overseers were responsible in estimating the amount of poor relief required so as to set the poor rate as well as distributing the relief. The poor rate was a tax levied on property used to provide for poor relief.

Act for the Relief of the Poor (1601) 
This refined what was set out in the Act for the Relief of the Poor in 1597 and made parishes responsible for supporting their community. The act involved that the impotent poor were to be cared for in a poorhouse, offering relief for those who were unable to work such as the blind. Those who were able to work were sent to work in a House of Industry. Those who were unwilling to work, known as the idle, were sent to a House of Correction or even prison and pauper children became apprentices. This act was a move away from the prior ways of punishing those in poverty.

EDUCATION
Those who went to school were mainly those who were sons of the wealthy who could actually afford the school fees. Girls were not sent to school but were kept at home to be educated and to learn the housework, or in the case of poorer families, sent out to work. The average school day began between 6:00 and 7:00 am and would finish around 5:00 pm. Due to there being very few books pupils read from hornbooks.

There were two main types of schools during the Tudor period, the petty schools and grammar schools. The petty schools were exclusive to those boys of middle class-origin and was most often ran by a local well educated housewife. These schools often taught boys to basics such as learning to read and write as well as lessons in behavior. Grammar schools were for boys aged 7 to 14, whereby after they may have been sent to university. At grammar school the boys were taught many lessons such as grammar, languages, theology, philosophy, literature, geometry and music. During the time of King Henry VIII he authorised the use of the textbook Lily's Latin Grammar, by William Lily, as the sole Latin grammar book to be used in schools.

After the age of 14 many boys went to university. However at the time there were only two universities; Oxford and Cambridge.

HEALTH
During the the Tudor period the life expectancy ranged from 40-50 years.

There was a high lack of sanitation in Tudor England due to the lack of sewers and drains. Diseases such as smallpox, measles, typhus, diphtheria, Scarlet fever and chickenpox were common  and during this period there were five major outbreaks of the Black Death.

For most people during this period, whether rich or poor, their staple diet was bread, even though the qualities varied between the classes. Nonetheless for most people in the Tudor era they lacked a balanced diet and this lack of necessities such as fruit, vegetables and vitamins often led to scurvy.

(1) - http://www.kingsnorton.info/time/poor_law_workhouse_timeline.htm


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The Carolingian Dynasty and Empire (751-887 AD)

The term Carolingian refers to the second dynasty of the Franks, a dynasty which lasted from around 751-887 AD.

The Carolingian dynasty derives from the Austrasian aristocratic family known as the Arnulfings (or the Pippinids), founded by St Arnulf. The Arnulfings were hereditary mayors of the palace of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia (now northern eastern France, Belgium and areas of western and central Germany) under the Merovingian kings. The Merovingian kings had been reduced to mere figureheads by the Arnulfings and were dubbed the rois fainéants, the 'do nothing kings.'

The Arnulfings to the Carolingians

By 687, Pippin II of Herstal, an Arnulfing, had effective rule over the Frankish realm. His illegitimate son, Charles Martel, by 725, established himself as ruler, even though there still maintained the fiction image of the Merovingian sovereignty. However the Arnulfing dynasty did effectively end after Pippin II as he was succeeded by an illegitimate son, Charles Martel. His reign is said by many historians to be the start of the Carolingian dynasty, named after Charles himself. Charles Martel was succeeded by his son, Pippin III who became sole ruler after his brother Carloman's abdication. In 750, Pippin III successfully desposed of the last ruler of the Merovingian dynasty, Childeric III, and officially took the title of King after many years of ruling under the image of false Merovingian sovereignty.

Pippin's successor was his son Charles le Magne, but would become known as Charlemagne who would be King of the Franks from 768-814 AD and would give new name to the Carolingian dynasty as the founder of the Carolingian Empire.

Europe During the Reign of Charlemagne 800 AD

Charlemagne began his reign with many military battles to expand his kingdom. Charlemagne was able to impose unity into Western Europe.  He achieved the total conquest of Saxony in 772, whilst also conquering the Lombards in Northern Italy. Frankish power was extended into Gaul (modern day France), Italy and Germany. He invaded northern Spain in 778, while also around that time adding Bohemia to what became known as his empire, the Carolingian Empire. As a thanks to Charlemagne's assistance in Rome, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Romans in 800. The Carolingian Empire at its peak claimed 1,112,000 km (squared) and a population estimated between 10-20 million. Charlemagne attempted to spread Christianity throughout his empire.

However his empire did not outlive him. On the death of Charlemagne in 814 he was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious. After his death in 840, his three sons, Lothar, Louis and Charles contested who would succeed. In 843, in the Treaty of Verdun they agreed to divide the empire into three kingdoms. Lothar received the Central Frankish Realm, Louis received the Eastern Frankish Realm and Charles the Western Frankish Realm. This partition of the empire reduced the old authority of the Carolingian empire. Eventually by 877, Carolingian power had dissolved.

The Division of the Empire after the Treaty of Verdun

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